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Key words:
Concerto
Folk music
Nationalism
Modes
Music hall
Plainsong
Programme music
Requiem
Symphonic poems
Symphonies
Whole-tone scale.
Around the middle of the 19th century many composers began to use music to express their feelings about their own countries. One reason for this development may have been that Romantic music was dominated by the great German composers of the period. Would-be composers often went to Germany to study. Later, when they returned home, some sought to break away from the German traditions of music.
Some of the composers listed as Romantics were seeking to introduce nationalistic ideas into their music - Chopin, for example, used Polish dances in his music, and Liszt used Hungarian gypsy music. As you can see from the dates for this period, nationalism in music overlaps with the Romantic period and the 20th century.
Nationalism in music is usually approached by looking at individual countries or areas. We have already considered Russia, where the internationalist approach of Tchaikovsky contrasted with the nationalist work of Glinka, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov and Mussorgsky. There were nationalists in other countries such as Czechoslovakia (Smetana, Dvorák, Janácek), Hungary (Bartok, Kodály) and Scandinavia (Sibelius, Grieg).
In England Elgar, Vaughan Williams, Holst and Delius used the traditions
of English music and developed a very English style. In America, Ives and
Copland combined elements of the music of America’s past with the tradition
of Western music.
Key Nationalist composers:
Bedrich
Smetana (back
to the top)
Dates: 1824-1884
Country: Czechoslovakia
Background notes: Greatly influenced by Liszt and Wagner
Music: Orchestral, opera, string quartet
Employment: Composer, conductor, teacher
Pieces to hear: Vltava from Ma Vlast (symphonic poem)
Antonin
Dvorak (back
to the top)
Dates: 1841-1904
Country: The Czech Republic
Background notes: 9th symphony was influenced by American folk
music
Music: Symphonies
Employment: Director of New York Music Conservatory 1892-5
Pieces to hear: 9th symphony (from the New World)
Edvard
Grieg (back
to the top)
Dates: 1843-1907
Country: Norway
Background notes: Used traditional Norwegian scales and
rhythms in his work
Music: Orchestral
Employment: Composer (received government grant)
Pieces to hear: A minor piano concerto; Peer Gynt; orchestral
suites
Jean
Sibelius (back
to the top)
Dates: 1865-1957
Country: Finland
Background notes: The ‘pieces to hear’ listed below represent
the Finnish landscape and a demand for freedom from Russia which ruled
Finland at that time
Music: Orchestral
Employment: Composer (received government grant)
Pieces to hear: Karelia Suite, Finlandia
Late Romantics
(BACK TO THE TOP)
Not all later Romantic composers were Nationalists. The group known as post-Romantics composed music which follows on from the developments of the Romantic period, and can best be seen as a link between the Romantics and the work of the 20th century composers.
Britain
The development of music in Britain during the Nationalist period took its own course, perhaps because of the island’s separation from Europe.
One notable phenomenon was the growth of the Music Halls in the second part of the 19th century. Music Halls were essentially public houses with entertainment rooms. The shows were lively and this style of music-making thrived; the music performed included everything from popular songs of the day to extracts from opera.
In the late 19th century the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan appeared
and were immediately a great success. Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900) also
composed many other works which are very clearly English in style.
Late Romantic composers
Anton
Bruckner (back
to the top)
Dates: 1842-96
Country: Austria
Background notes: Worked on a large scale, introducing new harmonies.
Did not use ‘bridge’ passages but often moved from one theme directly to
the next
Music: Orchestral
Employment: Organist, later professor of Vienna Conservatoire
Pieces to hear: Any of the ten symphonies
Gustav
Mahler (back
to the top)
Dates: 1860-1911
Country: Austria
Background notes: His symphonic scores tell the conductor and
players everything, covering every possible detail
Music: Orchestral, often in the form of programme music and
many songs
Employment: Composer, conductor
Pieces to hear: Any of the ten symphonies
Richard
Strauss (back
to the top)
Dates: 1864-1949
Country: Germany
Background notes: Developed programme music further than before,
and even used his compositions to respond to those who criticised his work
Music: Opera and symphonic poems
Employment: Composer, conductor
Pieces to hear: Death and Transfiguration; Operas: Der Rosenkavalier,
Elektra, Salome
France
Towards the end of the 19th century two strands of French music can be identified - that which developed from the influence of Wagner and that which was inspired by traditional French music. The best known musician of the former group was César FRANCK (1822-90). One of the leaders at the start of the Nationalist movement in France was Camille SAINT-SAËNS (1835-1921) who wrote The Carnival of the Animals, a comic imitation of the style of Berlioz and Rossini.
Gabriel
FAURÉ(back to the top)
(1845-1924) was a pupil of Saint-Saëns. The influences on his music
range from the modes and plainsong of over 1000 years before to contemporary
French music.
His most famous work is the Requiem composed in 1877.
Erik Satie (back
to the top)
Dates: 1866-1925
Country: France
Background notes: One of the most eccentric and humorous of
composers
Music: Piano
Employment: Cafe pianist, songwriter, composer
Pieces to hear: Gymnopédies
Claude
Debussy (back
to the top)
Dates: 1862-1918
Country: France
Background notes: Founder of the impressionism school in music
Music: Tone poems, orchestral music, piano pieces, songs
Employment: Composer, music critic
Pieces to hear: La Mer, Prélude à l’après-midi
d’un faune
Until this period, almost all western composers had used the seven note scale and system of major and minor scales.
Claude Debussy began to break away from this tradition. He used the whole-tone scale (a scale in which the distance between each pair of notes is one tone) and the five note scale (formed by the black notes on the piano). Debussy built up chords that broke the ‘rules’ followed by earlier composers (for example, using consecutive fifths and octaves). He moved from chord to chord, often taking each on its own, without linking it to any structure or form.
The whole-tone scale turned out to be limited. Debussy took the idea
as far as it could go. This was not the start of a new musical system,
but the beginning of the end of the old one. Some composers still experiment
with the whole-tone scale, but it is no longer seen as opening up new directions.
Activity
Write a short piece based on a whole-tone scale.
Arrange a performance either for one instrument or an ensemble.
Activity
Compose an eight bar melody using the whole-tone
scale as your basis. Add chords that you think will fit - but make sure
you only use notes in the chords that are in your whole-tone scale.
THE EARLY 20th CENTURY
(BACK TO THE TOP)
Key words:
Atonal music
Avant Garde
Classical form
Graphic
Score
Modes
Serial composition
Seven note scale
Synthesiser
Tone row
Whole-tone scale.
As you saw Debussy took a major step away from the traditional seven note scale and traditional tonal system by using the whole-tone scale. Some early 20th century composers looked back to earlier eras and decided to think again about modes. Others took a new look at rhythm, moving away from the dominance of pieces in two, three and four time. Stravinsky, for example, wrote pieces in which different rhythms appear in bars next to each other.
Composers wrote music in which different keys were used at the same time. Some pieces were in no key at all. Different rhythms came together and overlapped - in short, composers looked in all directions to break new ground. However it was often difficult for audiences to understand what the composers were doing, as they sought to break away from a tradition which had not only lasted hundreds of years but also resulted in the composition of so much music that the audiences loved.
Some composers continued to use Classical forms but with modern chords and rhythms; others looked more towards popular music. Some began to look for unusual sounds that had never before been part of the music that orchestral instruments played. Technological innovations, such as the development of the tape machine and the synthesiser, allowed composers to write the first electronic music. Gradually graphic scores appeared, sometimes even leaving it to the performers to decide what should happen in the music.
In all this apparent confusion, composers were seeking the most appropriate ways to compose music in a world that was changing more rapidly than ever before. The development of instant communications, and the highly sophisticated method of writing music down which we call conventional notation, means that audiences can still enjoy the music of the past. And this music now reaches a wider audience than ever before, through the media of radio, tape, records and CDs.
But the traditions of the Classical era have not died. Popular music,
for example, took up the basic chordal, melodic and rhythmic structures
which were the basis of Classical music several hundred years ago. Many
composers of film and theatre music also continued the traditions of earlier
eras of
orchestral music. In fact, one can argue that the old system has been
used throughout the 20th century - in modified forms - to write popular
music, while many ‘serious’ concert composers have abandoned the old system
they inherited and instead are working on new methods of expressing themselves.
Early 20th century composers in Paris and Vienna were actively looking
for new ways of creating music. They were more inclined to abandon the
old system of major and minor keys than their British contemporaries.
British composers of the early 20th century
Edward Elgar (back
to the top)
Dates: 1857-1934
Country: England
Background notes: Self-taught; very individual style
Music: Orchestral
Employment: Composer, conductor, organist
Pieces to hear: Enigma Variations; Dream of Gerontius (oratorio)
Ralph
Vaughan Williams (back
to the top)
Dates: 1872-1958
Country: England
Background notes: Collected English folk songs
Employment: Professor of composition, Royal College of Music
Pieces to hear: Nine symphonies, fantasia on a theme of Thomas
Tallis
Gustav Holst (back
to the top)
Dates: 1874-1934
Country: England
Background notes: Interested in folk song, and Indian music
Music: Orchestral
Employment: Teacher and Lecturer
Pieces to hear: The Planets Suite
William Walton (back
to the top)
Dates 1902-1987
Country England
Background notes Wrote much background music for radio and films
Music Vocal, orchestral, chamber
Employment Composer
Pieces to hear: Belshazzar’s Feast (oratorio); Façade (poems
for voice and chamber orchestra)
Benjamin
Britten (back
to the top)
Dates 1913-1976
Country England
Background notes Considered to be the greatest English composer
of this century
Music Opera, choral music, orchestral, cantatas
Employment Composer
Pieces to hear Peter Grimes, Noye’s Fludde (operas), War Requiem
(cantata)
Key European composers:
Arnold
Schoenberg (back
to the top)
Dates: 1874-1951
Country: Austria
Background notes: Started in the tradition of Wagner, then wrote
atonal music, and developed serial composition
Music: Choral, orchestral, opera, chamber
Employment: Professor of music, University of California
Pieces to hear: Pierrot Lunair - a series of songs for female
voice and octet
Igor
Stravinsky (back
to the top)
Dates: 1882-1971
Country: Russian born, lived in Europe and USA
Background notes: Rite of Spring caused a riot when first performed
Music: Symphonies, choral works, one opera and a violin concerto
Employment: Composer
Pieces to hear: The Firebird, Petrushka and The Rite of Spring
(ballet scores)
THE POST-WAR PERIOD (1945 to the present day)
(BACK TO THE TOP)
Explain why 1945 is particularly significant in
modern world history.
Serialism (the system developed by Schoenberg) has also been
developed further by the idea of taking the tone row into rhythm and tone
colour. In this way a set of interlocking musical events is developed,
known as total serialism.
Activity
Write a piece of music in the Avant Garde style
and arrange a performance.
Olivier
Messiaen (back
to the top)
Pierre
Boulez (back
to the top)
Karlheinz
Stockhausen (back
to the top)
John
Cage (back
to the top)
JAZZ
(back to the top)
Performers and Composers:
JELLY ROLL MORTON, BESSIE
SMITH, DUKE ELLINGTON, LOUIS
ARMSTRONG, CHARLIE PARKER, THELONIOUS
MONK
Key Words:
· Atonal music
· Avant Garde
· Big bands
· Creole
· Flattened 3rd
· Flattened 7th
· Improvisation
· Swing
· Trad jazz
· 9ths
· 11ths
· 13ths.
Write down your feelings about jazz: you could
mention the jazz you have heard; what you know about the history of jazz;
how you feel jazz differs from pop on the one hand and music in the Classical-Romantic
tradition on the other hand.
Although the various types of jazz that can now be heard may sound very different from each other, all jazz has the following elements in common:
Improvisation and performance
Although there are many jazz composers their compositions are known and remembered by performances, rather than through the music being written down. Often jazz compositions are only written down long after they are recorded, and what is written down is one particular improvised version that the composer himself has performed.
The melodic line
In pop music the melody line is sung - in jazz it is more often played by an instrument (for example a trumpet) while other instruments improvise around it.
Blues scales with use of flattened 3rd and 7th
Jazz has taken its scales from western music, but amended them slightly.
The major scale has the 3rd and 7th note lowered by one semitone (in C
major, E becomes E flat and B becomes B flat). Some types of jazz also
add a flattened fifth, but the overall concept remains that of the major
scale.
Key jazz musicians:
Jelly Roll Morton (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1885-1941
Instrument Piano
Music Combined ragtime, jazz and New Orleans Creole
Bessie Smith (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1898-1937
Instrument Singer
Music Blues, sang with many leading jazz musicians
Duke Ellington (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1899-1974
Instrument Pianist/bandleader
Music Developed the jazz orchestra
Louis Armstrong (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1900-1971
Instrument Trumpet
Music Small bands in 1920, larger ensembles in 30s, back to
small groups later
Charlie
Parker (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1920-1955
Instrument Alto saxophone
Music Founder of modern jazz in the 1940s in New York
Thelonious Monk (back
to the top of Jazz)
Dates 1920-
Instrument Piano
Music Very individual rhythms and harmonies
By the 1920s star performers such as Louis Armstrong were starting to emerge as the leaders of the ensembles. The centre of jazz then moved from New Orleans to Chicago.The 1920s was the period of boogie woogie - a distinctive piano style which formed the basis of small group music. It was also the time of the big bands. Big bands consisted of the full range of brass instruments, clarinets, saxophones, piano, drums, rhythm guitars, double bass and vocalist. Some big bands were led by a conductor, others by the leading soloist.
The term big band has always meant a particular style of performance as much as a description of the instruments involved, and you should listen to music from several big bands to gain an impression of this style.
Big bands posed a problem for jazz musicians and arrangers; how to balance the improvisatory part of jazz with the need for so many musicians playing at once to have notated music. The most famous big band leader was Duke Ellington; he was also the most adept at balancing these two elements of jazz.The era of the big bands saw the start of swing - a style of music in which all beats in a bar carry an accent. At the same time harmonies were extended to make use of the possibilities offered by the big bands so that 9ths, 11ths and 13ths came into play. This meant that every note from a scale except the 7th (which was available as a flattened note) could be put into a chord. After the 13th the scale has no more notes to offer and the arranger is then forced into chromatic harmonies which give a totally different effect. The leading soloists of the time were Benny Goodman on clarinet, and Fats Waller on piano.
As jazz continued to develop, new styles began to evolve such as be-bop,
itself a strong reaction against the way swing was becoming standardised.
After that came a new generation of modern jazz performers such
as Dizzy Gillespie and this in turn led to free jazz with wide-ranging
experiments and fewer restrictions.In a very short space of time jazz has
worked through the tonal system and started to look elsewhere. Free jazz
often (but not always) includes an atonal approach, use of music from other
cultures and an attempt to bridge the gap between pop music and jazz. There
has been some movement from the pop composers in response, such as the
work of Frank
Zappa who includes in his music elements from jazz and from the Avant
Garde.
Traditional jazz still flourishes in many jazz clubs around the
UK and has an active following
Do some research to find out when the following forms of jazz developed and reached their peak of popularity.
1 Write a piece of music that makes use of the blues scale including a flattened 3rd, 5th and 7th.
2 Write a piece of music that makes use of chords of the 9th, 11th and 13th
POP and ROCK MUSIC
(back to the top)
ROCK N'ROLL, DEVELOPMENT, THE FUTURE, KEY MUSICIANS
It is impossible to give a complete history of pop music in a brief
chapter like this. New styles are developing all the time. Music historians
differ widely in their view of pop music. You will probably disagree with
some of the things I say in this chapter. If so, try to explain why. Give
your own point of view, and support it with examples of the music you are
talking about.
Activity
What type of pop music interests you most? Write
a brief description for someone who is not familiar with that type of music.
Explain the main features of the style and what appeals to you.
What was music for teenagers like 10, 20 or 30
years ago? Decide what period you want to investigate (eg the 1960s). Do
some research into the pop music of the time. Ask older relatives, teachers
etc what music they listened to and what groups they liked. Look in books
to find out what records were in the charts, and try to listen to some
of them. You may be able to find a
compilation record of ‘Greatest Hits’ from the
period.
Describe some of the music you have lisened to. Were the hits of the period different from the hits of today? How? Does any of the music of the time appeal to you? If so, in what ways? Can you pick out any records you have heard which could be re-released and become hits again?
Pop music as we know it today developed from a combination of the musical tradition of American slaves and the music from shows, films, music hall and early radio and TV. Fashions in music changed rapidly as the 20th century progressed: new crazes sprang up overnight and disappeared just as fast.
However in the 1950s a new dance form and musical style developed. Unlike
the others, it was not simply a short-lived craze; it is still influencing
the development of pop music today. Its name was rock ’n’ roll.
Rock ’n’ Roll was ‘born’ in 1954, with the film and song Rock Around the Clock by Bill Haley and the Comets. The music appeared to be much more challenging than anything that had gone before. It was aggressive in its use of 4/4 rhythms, far less melodic than earlier popular music, and very much designed for dancing. The link with the music of American blacks was also much clearer than in anything that had gone before. The lyrics were usually written from the point of view of teenagers, and were almost exclusively about love, lost love or dancing. (If other topics did occur, they were usually other teenage themes such as cars, motorbikes or clothes.)
The earliest rock ’n’ roll groups used a variety of instruments. But the instrumentation soon became standard, consisting of guitars and a drum kit. Most attention focused on the singer (a tradition which goes back to the earliest days of opera). Electrification of instruments was used from the start, to create a louder and more powerful sound.
In the 1950s and 60s teenagers emerged as a social group in their own
right. Young people were earning more than ever before; they could afford
to spend on clothes, drinking and having a good time. Rock ’n’ roll quickly
became associated with this new freedom; for many, it represented a rejection
of the earlier generation’s ideals. The new message was live for today,
don’t worry about tomorrow’. The parents of this post-war generation felt
alienated by the loudness and insistent beat of the music, and by their
teenagers’ aggressive approach to life and leisure.
From the very start, pop music diversified into different styles and approaches. In the mid-1950s there was a short-lived interest in skiffle - a very fast, simple form for vocalist, guitar, washboard and a bass instrument usually made out of a tea chest, a pole and a piece of string! Ballads were also popular; these retained the melodic interest of earlier types of music, in contrast with the aggressive brashness of pure rock ’n’ roll.
Followers of particular types of dance and music developed characteristic styles of dress and even behaviour. The Teddy Boys of the early rock ’n’ roll era gave way to the Mods and Rockers of the 1960s, then came the Hippies of the 1960s ... Fashions were constantly changing - both in dress and in music.
Several factors contributed to this constant change:
1 Record companies wanted to make profits through issuing new records. Since the music was new they could not rely on a ‘back catalogue’ of past hits that would go on selling.
2 Teenagers wanted to be in tune with the latest trend, to show that they were really up-to-date.
3 A great range of talent existed in young people which had previously
been untapped. Until the development of pop, few people had imagined that
teenagers who showed little musical ability at school, and certainly no
special talent in piano or violin lessons, might actually have the ability
to play and write lively and exciting songs.
Listen to some skiffle from the 1950s. Why do you think this type of music suddenly became popular? Why was its popularity short-lived?
Could you write a pop song? The answer is probably ‘Yes’ - if you have the confidence to try. You could work on your own, or with other members of your group. Start with the words - either write your own or choose a suitable poem. Keep it simple - just four lines followed by a chorus.
Now start the music, either with a melody or a
chord sequence. Even if you are totally unsure of what to do, try something
out. If it sounds dreadful, just change it and try something different.
Paul McCartney, the most successful composer of all time (in terms of music
sales), probably started by trying out ideas which he then rejected. Give
it a try!
Key pop musicians
(back to the top of Pop Music)
There are so many areas of pop, and so many practitioners that it is almost impossible to identify key individuals of groups. Here are just a few of the most individual:
The Beatles
are probably the best-known of all pop groups. John Lennon and Paul McCartney
wrote the majority of the Beatles’ hits. Their vocal harmonies, lyrics
and melodies explored new ground in pop. They introduced revolutionary
ideas into pop in their later albums, including elements of Indian music,
Music Hall and the electronic avant-garde. Most significant album: Sergeant
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)
Elvis Presley was the most famous solo singer of the rock ’n’ roll era. He wrote little music himself, but his good looks and dynamic performing style made him a major force in popularising rock ’n’ roll.
Bob Dylan and Paul Simon stand out as singer/songwriters. Dylan’s music often lacks much melodic interest, but is constantly varied. His lyrics deal with new and unexpected areas and he popularised the ‘protest song’. Paul Simon has been interested not only in lyrics; he has also developed pop melodies and accompaniments, often drawing on other cultures (eg South Africa).
Frank Zappa was recognised as a highly innovative pop musician, seeking links between pop, jazz, the classics and the Avant Garde. His work overcomes the limitations of pop music (the three-minute song, lyrics concerning one of the three themes, lack of modulation).
Is pop music on the decline? Is it simply another short-lived musical
form, such as the madrigal of the early 15th century? By the 1980s there
were signs that the creativeness and innovation of pop was waning. New
musicians continue to emerge, but record companies now have a large back
catalogue covering 25 years of pop music, with a range large enough to
suit most tastes. Since
1980 it has been cheaper and easier for companies to re-release old
hits, rather than locating and recording new talent. There seems little
interest in breaking away from the standard ‘formula’. The 90s have seen
continuing revivals of music from earlier eras. Even new hits often sound
very much like songs of 30 years before.
The major development in recent years has been in the field of electronic instruments. These have reduced the number of musicians required to make a piece of music - although so far there have been no revolutionary new forms or great talents. Micro-technology means that almost anyone can create interesting sounds, but interesting sounds are not enough.
My own view is that pop was the last flourish of the major/minor seven
note scale system. Unlike jazz it has failed to move beyond its restrictions
and has become little more than music written to a formula. Do you agree?
If not, explain why and give examples. Of course, it is quite possible
that in the time between my writing these words and you reading them a
major new composer may emerge, with an influence as significant and lasting
as that of the Beatles or Dylan. Perhaps you think this has happened already.
NON-WESTERN MUSIC
(back to the top)
INDIA, SOUTH EAST
ASIA, CHINA, JAPAN, AFRICA,
INSTRUMENTS OF THE WORLD
Key words:
· Colonialism
· Culture
· Elite
· Musical theorists
· Non-western music.
Listen to a piece of non-western music. Write
down your thoughts and comments on hearing it for the first time. Can you
listen to this music in the same way as you do for music that you are used
to, or does the fact that the music is so different from western music
mean that the original approach is no longer appropriate?
You can hear Beethoven or Bach performed in concert halls from New York to Beijing. Turn on the radio in Cairo and you will probably be able to tune in to western pop music ... Never before has one culture had the power to broadcast its music to the rest of the world so effectively.
This ‘exporting’ of western music began in the colonial period. Few of the European colonisers saw anything of interest in the music of their new colonies. They were not concerned to preserve such music or encourage its continued development.
These musical traditions had developed over thousands of years, in ways quite different from those of the West. Many still survive today - despite the colonial period.
Because we live in the West we tend to concentrate on the history and development of western music. But this does not mean that it is necessarily superior to the music of other cultures.
Each culture has developed its own forms and approaches. In some cultures musical theorists have been very important, writing down the rules of music, stating clearly what may and what may not be done, bringing together what is thought of as ‘good music’ and showing which rules that music obeys. Once this has been done, later composers tend to follow these rules. Unless the rules are flexible or a number of composers of great talent deliberately break them, there is a danger that the music can become restricted and creative flair will disappear
On the other hand some cultures have no theorists and develop musical forms which constantly change and develop. In other cultures a musical elite grows up which leads to the belief that only a tiny number of people can play and compose music. In yet other cultures everyone learns to play musical instruments, just as everyone learns to speak. In some societies music is written down in a very exact form, while in others music is rarely written down at all, and is constantly improvised.
Each country has its own approach to music and its own reaction to the
influence of music from beyond its borders.
INDIA
(back to the top of Non-Western)
Key words
· Improvisation
· Semitone
· Raga.
In India musical instruments have not traditionally been grouped into
an orchestra. Instead Indian music is based on pieces played by one or
two instruments, often with a large degree of improvisation. The basis
of the music has been very carefully worked out in a set of theories that
have evolved over hundreds of years. At the heart of the theory is the
division of the octave into
22 almost equal steps. These steps are less than a semitone each, which
is why Indian music often sounds strange to western ears, used to hearing
jumps of semitones, tones etc. In the musical theory of India notes have
to be used in particular groups, and in each group the notes are organised
in special ways. Certain notes are emphasised and this gives a basic plan
for how the music should proceed.
These groups of notes, known as iathis, are elaborated within the rules
of the basic plans to become ragas. The result is that each raga
can be given a particular ‘feel’ which ears used to Indian music will immediately
appreciate as representing certain emotions, thoughts, times of day etc.
This approach started from a wish to have music for each season - eventually
it developed so
that there is music for each hour of the day. Each raga is associated
with a tala - a fixed pattern of beats arranged in a specific group
- and like the arrangement of the melody this often sounds impossibly complex
to western listeners not used to Indian music.
The raga and tala are starting points for performers who interact and improvise during the performance, always obeying the rules of the basic raga and tala. Each piece may last for over an hour as the formula of the raga is developed and explored.
The performance usually starts with a slow introduction, followed by
a statement of the raga itself, and then the full improvised piece. Each
performance is clearly different, reflecting the mood of the performer
and the response of the listeners. Some performances may be written down
- although
this may merely be so that pupils and children of the performer will
learn that particular performance. In the north of India the works of great
composers who lived between the 16th and 19th centuries are played in the
same way each time, with the details of the performance handed down from
one generation to the next.
No variations are allowed in the way the piece is to be performed, which makes great demands on the memory of the performers. In the south the music tends to be much freer and allows greater flexibility for the performer.
Some musical instruments of India:
SOUTH EAST ASIA
(back to the top of Non-Western)
Key words
· Gamelan
· Java & Bali
· Indonesia.
Much of the very early music of South East Asia was associated with
agriculture. For example, rice farmers in Java devised a way of irrigating
their fields using a bamboo tube. The tube is connected to a water channel
and carefully balanced. When full, it topples over to release the water.
As the
bamboo falls, it hits a stone and makes a resonating sound. Different
tubes strike different notes. From this developed the idea of a whole orchestra
of chime bars.
After the rice is grown and cut it is put into a hollowed-out tree trunk and stamped with pestles. Holes are cut in the wood for the pestles. Each hole is a different size, so each pestle makes a different sound.
Gradually, instruments were developed in South East Asia for specifically musical purposes. Over time the orchestra known as the Gamelan developed in Indonesia. This includes instruments that to western eyes and ears resemble xylophones, gongs and chimes with fixed pitches, plus untuned cymbals, and a range of melodic instruments. On occasion solo voices or choruses are added.
With the pitched instruments playing the melody over and over again, the non-pitched instruments should come in one after the other with an improvisation. Do not all try and improvise at once; you will need time to get the feel of how the improvisation is working.
When you have finished, note down how the improvisation went, where it went right and what was wrong.
The music played by Gamelan orchestras starts with a slow-moving theme in which each note has the same length. The chimes improvise around the theme, varying it with decoration, anticipating a note or playing notes from the main theme slightly delayed. The highest of the pitched instruments improvise further around the main themes, adding extra variations.
Sometimes, especially in Java, an extra line of melody, quite free from
the others, is developed, and a zither may be added to increase the variations.
This orchestra ranges over some seven octaves - producing a form of music
totally different from the approach to music in China and India. Everyone
in the village or community learns how to play one or more instruments,
so all the members of a community, from children to grandparents, can join
in. Music is an important part of life in certain parts of Indonesia: there
are over 17,000 full orchestras in the country.
CHINA
(back to the top of Non-Western)
Key words
· Archive
· Dynasty
· Five note scale
· Genghis Khan
· Imperial
· Music drama
· Mysticism
· Philosophy
· Raga
· ‘Theory and practice’.
Musical instruments in China
Ch’in (zither). These instruments were used in large numbers (sometimes over 100 at once) for ceremonial music and music of contemplation.
Other Chinese instruments would be recognised by people in the west as mouth organs, bells, drums and chimes.
Chinese music does not rely on harmony but rather on tone quality. The
instruments are used to contrast with each other, rather than playing as
an orchestra.
Write and play a five note scale of your own invention. Then write and perform a short piece for one or more instruments written around the five note scale.
Ancient Chinese communities celebrated the festivals of the agricultural
year with songs and dancing. From the earliest days music was very influential
in court; it also became a vital part of religious life. Professional musicians
provided the courtly and religious music. There were also strong links
between music and philosophy and mysticism. At the heart of the mystical
theory of
music was a bell which had to be tuned correctly for each dynasty.
>From this point the number 2 (Earth) and 3 (Heaven) were used to give other
notes that could be used in the creation of music. Out of this mystical
theory the five note scale evolved. The courtly musicians first agreed
the note of the bell for this dynasty and then made a tube which played
the note of the dynasty. Another
tube was made two thirds of the size of the original which produced
the bell pitch. A second was made four thirds the size of the original,
and so on, until a complete five note scale was produced.
Of course a different set of notes could be derived if one started at a different point - that is a different bell pitch. Eventually this was done and a whole series of five note scales was arranged with each starting point being related to a mood or idea, rather like each Indian raga.
All Chinese music was based on this theory. Sometimes theory and practice parted slightly, but the general theory remained intact over thousands of years. By the time of Christ, the Chinese Emperor had set up an Imperial Office of Music which had the job of standardising pitch and building the musical archives. Music continued to flourish through to the end of the 13th century.
Towards the end of the 13th century the Chinese were attacked from the north by Genghis Khan. Millions died in the wars which followed. The invasion caused terrible suffering; but in musical terms the results were very positive. New instruments and new musical ideas were introduced. Music dramas developed and each type of song became associated with a certain mode - again rather like the principle behind the Indian ragas.
Next came the Ming Dynasty which lasted into the 17th century. Musical
authorities brought together the theory of Chinese music in a massive 19
volume textbook. But the time of great innovation had passed. By 1911,
when the dynasties came to an end, both the music of the courts and the
religious music had degenerated. After 1911 there was little court music
and only limited religious music, although of course popular music survived.
Western orchestras playing the popular classics of Europe have replaced
thousands of years of traditional music. In films, popular Chinese music
is mixed with western music.
JAPAN
(back to the top of Non-Western)
Key words
· Aria
· Buddhism
· Cultural life
· Percussion
· Recitative
· Samurai
· Syncopation.
Japan’s culture appears to have taken a circular route - a route which has enabled it to survive many outside influences and continue to flourish.
Japan has always been exposed to Chinese influences - from the 2nd century AD there have been Chinese musicians and instruments in Japan. Japan invaded Korea in the 3rd century, and thus became open to influences from Korean music. By the 8th century the Japanese Emperor had set up a special music office, with the main purpose of studying music brought back from overseas by travellers.
By the 9th century Japanese music came from so many sources (including Indian as well as Korean and Chinese music) that music theorists classified it in two groups, depending on which country it originated from. Each group had its own instruments. This grouping was considered so important that it even determined which side of the stage dancers appeared from when dancing to the music.
The music imported from other countries hundreds of years before tended to continue in Japan even after it had declined in its native homeland. The problem with music imported in this way is that it tends to remain unchanged, and anything in cultural life which does not change may become sterile.
Buddhism had a great influence on Japanese music. Buddhist music, with its strong emphasis on percussion and chanting, gradually became the music of the court.
During the Samurai period (13th-15th century) a new musical form developed.
This was the Noh play, a form of music drama consisting of recitatives
and arias which took place in temples and open-air arenas. These plays
show scenes from everyday life. The soloists and chorus are accompanied
by drums and flutes. The drums keep a basic pulse running while the words
are fitted
into the pulse, often with syncopation from the voice. The Noh plays
were a popular form of entertainment until the 17th century. Gradually,
however, they became less widespread and aimed much more at an elite, aristocratic
audience.
In the 17th century a new instrument was introduced in Japan - a 13
string zither known as a koto. Due to the work of just one musician
- Yatsushashi (1614-1685) - this instrument became the national instrument
of Japan. It is widely used either to play solo pieces (usually a series
of variations) or as an instrument to accompany a singer. The instrument
is based on a five note scale
but this differs from the Chinese five note scale.
From the end of the 19th century Japan was opened up to western traders
and cultural influences. While in China this completed a period of musical
decay, in Japan the effect was quite different. Western music has been
welcomed in Japan. Many Europeans teach music in Japan and Japanese
work in Europe and America. This is a repeat of what happened between
the 7th and 9th centuries. At the same time traditional forms continued
and are being used as the basis of new experiments.
Japanese instruments would be recognised by western audiences as the drum, flute and zither. Other instruments include:
1 Shamisen (a long-knecked three string guitar)
2 Shakuhachi (a vertical bamboo pipe).
AFRICA
(back to the top of Non-Western)
Key words
· Blues
· Call and response
· Jazz
· Reggae.
When we speak of ‘African’ music we tend to mean the music of black Africa from south of the southern edge of the Sahara. The music of the countries which border the Mediterranean tends to be related to Islamic music.
The music of black Africa is for occasions and situations. Whatever the occurrence there will be music for it: the death of a loved one, the birth of a child, a declaration of war, the arrival of new animals on a farm - everything.
Since the time of slavery African music has been exported to America where it has integrated with white music. This has resulted in the development of jazz, blues, soul, rock, reggae and so on. There has then been further feedback from this development into African music which ensures that the music stays as alive and vital as ever.
African music is alive and thriving perhaps partly because it is so closely linked to everyday affairs, and partly because it has the constant exchange of influences with American music. While some musical cultures wither and die under the onslaught of western culture, much African music appears to thrive on it.
At the heart of African music are drum rhythms, (which constantly push each musical piece forwards) and call and response singing (often known as lining in which the soloist sings one line and the chorus responds). The rhythms of the call and response and the drumming are often complex with different players playing different rhythms at the same time. The drum rhythms move in and out of phase while the singers sing with accents that do not coincide with the drum rhythms.
This type of music is rarely written down but instead develops through improvisations into involved pieces often more than an hour long.
Africa is a vast continent. It is not surprising that features of music vary from place to place. Different scales (some of four notes and some of seven notes) and different types of harmony and singing techniques are found in different locations.
Write a short rhythmic piece based on the idea of call and response. One voice or instrument should issue the first call, and a second instrument or voice, or a group of instruments or voices, should then respond. To keep the piece under control, consider how changes are going to be introduced. For example, will the caller just change the words and the response stay with the original words? Will the rhythm change, and if so will both sides change? Start with a very tightly controlled set of changes, so that you can get the feel of how the piece works.
African instruments are very varied, with the drums coming in all shapes and sizes - in places there are even drum orchestras - with some being made from hollowed logs and so not having a skin. Rattles, scrapers, castanets and bells are also widely used.
Among the tuned instruments there are xylophones, flutes, reed pipes, horns and trumpets. Finally there are some stringed instruments to be found such as zithers, lutes and harps.
NON WESTERN
EUROPEAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
When you look at a musical instrument from a non-western culture it may at first sight appear rather strange. And yet while the appearance of musical instruments varies across the world there are basically only five types of musical instrument:
1 Self-sounding instruments
2 Instruments with vibrating membranes
3 Wind instruments
4 Stringed instruments
5 Electronic instruments
Which particular instruments are of importance in any one area will be determined by the materials available, the lifestyle of the people, imports from other musical cultures and the development of the music itself within that area. Where music is of central importance to the people, where the culture is lively and where new music is being written all the time then there will be a climate for new instruments to be developed, and they will be taken up by composers anxious for new sound sources.
Sometimes a new instrument is introduced, but little notice is taken
of it until a composer or performer of genius sees the possibilities it
offers. This in turn influences others to look again at the instrument
and explore its possibilities. The saxophone gives an interesting example.
Since it was developed by an instrument maker in the 1840s the saxophone
has never been widely used by
orchestral composers. Instead it has been taken up by jazz performers
- something which the inventor would never have considered.
1 Self-sounding instruments
The most common instruments of this type are rattles and clappers, stone chimes, gongs and xylophones. Some people in Africa have developed self-sounding instruments which are very large hollowed-out logs. If these are placed on a frame rather than on the ground the log can be played as a drum and the sound can carry for great distances.
It is also possible to have plucked self-sounding instruments such as the mbira in which metal strips are fixed to a hollow box and plucked with the thumbs.
2 Instruments with vibrating membranes
The most obvious instrument in this category is the drum, which can have either one or two membranes - where there are two the second resonates when the first is hit. There are many varieties of drum, ranging from the drums found in orchestral music in the West to the talking drums of Africa where threads connect two membranes. These threads can be pulled together. This tightens the membranes and serves to change the sound made.
3 Wind instruments
Wind instruments can either be blown into from the end, or held sideways and blown across (as with the orchestral flute). Most wind instruments have finger holes so that the length of the instrument that the wind travels is varied, and thus the note to be played is changed. Some wind instruments, such as pan pipes, consist of a series of different flutes attached to each other, each of which makes a different note.
Some wind instruments have single or double reeds, for others (such as the orchestral brass instruments) the players use their lips in order to make sounds.
4 Stringed instruments
Strings need to be held tight and then plucked, hit or bowed. Because of the quietness of the instrument there is normally a need to have a resonator - such as the hollow bodies of the violin and the guitar. One of the earliest forms of stringed instrument is the Arabic ‘ud, a short-necked lute still found in Islamic countries. The player normally places his or her left hand on the strings to shorten the length and raise the pitch of the note. Some stringed instruments (like the guitar) use frets to guide the performer in selecting the right position. Others (such as the violin family) have no frets.
5 Electronic instruments
These started as simple electronic additions to existing instruments
- the first electric guitars were simply acoustic guitars with pick-ups
attached to them, which served to increase the volume. Electronic instruments
exist in two forms - those which take the design of an existing instrument
and use electronics to enlarge the sound or to enable the instrument to
be smaller (such as an electric organ), and those which use electronics
to develop new sounds which could not be made in any other way (such as
synthesisers).
European Musical Instruments
(back to the top of Instruments)
ORCHESTRAL STRINGS
NON-ORCHESTRAL STRINGS
KEYBOARD
WOODWIND
BRASS
PERCUSSION
The last showed one way of dividing musical instruments into five groups:
1 Self-sounding instruments
2 Instruments with vibrating membranes
3 Wind instruments
4 Stringed instruments
5 Electronic instruments.
This is a very useful way of looking at instruments from different cultures.
However, when we look at European instruments, a slightly different approach
is normally used. This does not mean that the analysis in the previous
chapter is wrong. But traditionally we divide European instruments in a
different way.
Stringed instruments
(back to the top of European Instruments)
The string section of the orchestra consists of violins, violas, cellos and double basses. The violins are usually divided into two groups.
Each of these instruments has four strings tuned a fifth apart. A bow
is drawn across a string by the right hand just below the bridge; the left
hand is used to shorten the string by touching the finger board at specific
points. The higher the finger board is touched, the higher the note produced.
Viola. Its
history follows that of the violin - it is to be found in string quartets
and orchestral music. While it has some solo music there is far less written
for it than for the violin.Non-orchestral stringed instruments
(back to the top of European Instruments)
Activity
Write a solo piece for one stringed instrument
which is to be played by one member of your class.
Keyboard instruments
(back to the top of European Instruments)
Keyboard instruments have the advantage of a wide range of both tone and pitch. All keyboard instruments except the organ and electronic keyboards have one or more strings per semitone. The major difference between each instrument is the way the strings are hit or plucked. Instead of strings the organ has pipes through which wind is pumped.
Woodwind
(back to the top of European Instruments)
The woodwind instruments are a group of instruments originally (and in some cases still) made of wood which make sounds through the player blowing and setting a column of air vibrating. The player either blows across the end of the pipe (as in the flute) or into a mouthpiece which normally contains a reed (for example the clarinet or saxophone) or a double reed (the bassoon or oboe). The shorter the column of air, the higher the note. The player usually uses fingers to stop various holes and so reduce the length of the column of air. The most common woodwind instruments are the bassoon, clarinet, flute, recorder, oboe and saxophone.
During the Romantic period the woodwind section of the orchestra usually included two flutes, two clarinets, two oboes and two bassoons. All these instruments were also given solos from time to time. The clarinet is now found in jazz bands of all types.
Orchestral woodwind
Brass instruments
(back to the top of European Instruments)
Orchestral brass instruments
Brass instruments are in fact long tubes with air vibrating inside them. In the Middle Ages brass instruments were associated with fanfares for the announcement of princes, noblemen and kings and this use of the instruments to announce or herald events has remained in music ever since. The notes can be changed by tensing or relaxing the lips - although not all notes are available. If you would like to know more about which notes can be played, refer to a dictionary of music which gives details of the ‘fundamental’ note and ‘harmonics’. As you will see, everything depends on the length of tubing available. New instruments have been developed in which the length of the tube is changed through the introduction of valves (invented in 1815) or, in the case of the trombone, a slide.
The brass section in the orchestra normally consists of four horns, three trumpets, three trombones and a tuba. Traditional jazz bands normally have a trumpet and trombone playing alongside a clarinet.
The development of brass instruments led to the formation of brass bands. >From the 1840s these consisted of brass and percussion. Brass band contests became a popular form of entertainment. By 1900 there were over 20,000 brass bands in Britain.
Percussion
(back to the top of European Instruments)
All percussion instruments are played by striking or shaking. There are two types - pitched percussion (for example the kettledrum, xylophone, vibes and tubular bells) and non-pitched percussion (cymbal, side drum, tambourine etc).
Orchestral percussion
MUSICAL ENSEMBLES
(back to the top of European Instruments)
A musical ensemble is the name given to any group of instruments. A
pop group of three guitars and a drum kit is an ensemble. So is a classical
orchestra of strings, wind, brass and percussion.
Orchestra
Chamber Music
Pop Ensembles
The orchestra is central to the music of the Classical Romantic tradition in the West and the Gamelan music of Java and Bali. But in many other parts of the world the orchestra has never been of any importance. Thus while we may think it natural for ‘serious’ music to be played by an orchestra and for pop music to be played by a small group, we should not be misled into thinking that this is the way it has to be.
Even in the West the orchestra is quite a recent development. The first
use of an orchestra was by Monteverdi in his opera Orfeo which was written
for viols, violins, lutes, harp, harpsichords, organs, recorders, cornets,
trumpets and kettledrums.Although the orchestra has changed very much since
this first appearance it is interesting to note that the central role given
to the strings in
the Orfeo orchestra has remained.The early changes to the orchestra
involved the viols being replaced by violins and the growth of a wind section
of two flutes, two oboes, two bassoons and two horns. Later two clarinets,
two trumpets and kettledrums were added; they were followed later still
by trombones.Gradually a standard orchestra of about 35 players evolved.
Once the basic format had been established, composers began exploiting
the particular qualities of each instrument, rather than making every instrument
copy the violins. The string section expanded to include first and second
violins playing separate parts, plus violas, cellos and double basses.
The strings make up about 70 per cent of the total orchestra.Later the
wind section added a piccolo and, from time to time, a bass clarinet, double
bassoon, and possibly an extra woodwind or brass instrument. The percussion
section expanded as well with the introduction of xylophone, bells, tambourines,
side drum and so on.Later still composers have used even greater forces
- including choirs, and ever more unusual instruments.
These developments came as a result of the creativity of composers combined with the fact that the orchestra offered great possibilities. Some musical developments are short-lived because they offer only a limited range of options. With the orchestra the opposite was the case.
Choose any two percussion instruments which people
in your group have, or which are available
in your school or college and write a detailed account of them.
Include details of how the instruments are made and played. Give detailsof
music which involves these instruments which you have heard. Finally write
a brief piece of music which features these instruments.
Write down details of the percussion section used
in any four pieces of music you have enjoyed
recently.
If you are interested in pop music you may like to see how the pop group has also changed. The original group that Bill Haley performed with at the time he recorded Rock Around the Clock included a double bass, a zither, and three saxophones. Later the electric guitar became dominant; the standard format of three electric guitars (lead, rhythm and bass) and drum kit was established in the 1960s. Soon other groups such as the Beach Boys decided to concentrate on studio work where the facilities offered by the studio determined the music produced.
Bob Dylan reacted against this increasing complexity by returning to a simpler style with an acoustic guitar and harmonica, but then no sooner had that become popular than he arrived with a rock group which uniquely included a piano and an electric organ. While musicians of limited talent imitated what the stars had just done there were always highly inventive composer-performers experimenting with other line-ups and new musical styles. Individual groups introduced orchestral instruments such as the flute or violin, often with electric pick-ups added.
All living music develops and changes. The fact that the instrumental
line-up changes so often gives a clear clue as to when the music was written.
The fact that a concept lasts hundreds of years shows how full of possibilities
it is.
Activity
Make a list of different ensembles which have
been used over the years by various pop groups.
Chamber music
(back to the top of Ensembles)
The literal meaning of chamber music is ‘music that takes place in a small room’. The term is used today to specify Classical-Romantic music played by a small group of up to about 10 players (although there is no clear maximum number - Mozart’s Serenade in B flat, for example, is for 13 players).
The simplest chamber music is the duo - two instruments such
as the piano and the violin. The trio, like the duo, can be for
any combination of instruments as can a quartet. But with the quartet
we see one particular group that has a massive repertoire: the string
quartet of two violins, viola and cello.
Activity
Listen to any string quartet and record your reactions.
Activity
Listen to a piece for three instruments, and record it in your Listening Log.
Now choose any three instruments which are available
in your class, and write a piece for them
which you feel your colleagues can play.
The quintet also has one particular grouping that is particularly popular - the wind quintet for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn. Once one reaches the sextet composers tend to start working in pairs of instruments.
In the chamber group no conductor is required, although with the larger
ensembles it is not always possible to perform without one. Many performers
find chamber music more fun than orchestral music. It requires a higher
degree of skill, since any slip by just one player will immediately be
recognised.
Activity
Choose any two or three composers from the Classical
and Romantic periods and listen to their orchestral
music. Write a report on what you have heard and how
the orchestra used differs in each case.
Activity
1 Listen to some chamber music by two different composers and compare what you have heard.
2 Undertake some research into the development
of chamber music, and listen to extracts from
chamber works during the Classical and Romantic
periods. Write an essay about the music you have heard.
Activity
Make a tape recording of extracts of orchestral
music from different periods. Play the tape
to your colleagues and ask them to identify the period from which
the music comes, and the instruments they can hear in each extract.
Activity
Choose any orchestral instrument and write an
essay on how it has been used throughout the
history of orchestral music, with reference to the music you have
heard
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